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英美文化 |
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History
of Christmas and Winter Celebrations The
history of Christmas dates back over 4000 years. Many of our Christmas traditions
were celebrated centuries before the Christ child was born. The 12 days of
Christmas, the bright fires, the yule log, the giving of gifts,
carnivals(parades) with floats, carolers who sing while going from house
to house, the holiday feasts, and the church processions can all be traced
back to the early Mesopotamians. Many
of these traditions began with the Mesopotamian celebration of New Years.
The Mesopotamians believed in many gods, and as their chief god - Marduk.
Each year as winter arrived it was believed that Marduk would do battle
with the monsters of chaos. To assist Marduk in his struggle the
Mesopotamians held a festival for the New Year. This was Zagmuk, the New
Year's festival that lasted for 12 days.
The
Mesopotamian king would return to the temple of Marduk and swear his
faithfulness to the god. The traditions called for the king to die at the
end of the year and to return with Marduk to battle at his side.
To
spare their king, the Mesopotamians used the idea of a "mock"
king. A criminal was chosen and dressed in royal clothes. He was given all
the respect and privileges of a real king. At the end of the celebration
the "mock" king was stripped of the royal clothes and slain,
sparing the life of the real king.
The
Persians and the Babylonians celebrated a similar festival called the
Sacaea. Part of that celebration included the exchanging of places, the
slaves would become the masters and the masters were to obey. Early
Europeans believed in evil spirits, witches, ghosts and trolls. As the
Winter Solstice approached, with its long cold nights and short days, many
people feared the sun would not return. Special rituals and celebrations
were held to welcome back the sun.
In
Scandinavia during the winter months the sun would disappear for many
days. After thirty-five days scouts would be sent to the mountain tops to
look for the return of the sun. When the first light was seen the scouts
would return with the good news. A great festival would be held, called
the Yuletide, and a special feast would be served around a fire burning
with the Yule log. Great bonfires would also be lit to celebrate the
return of the sun. In some areas people would tie apples to branches of
trees to remind themselves that spring and summer would return.
The
ancient Greeks held a festival similar to that of the Zagmuk/Sacaea
festivals to assist their god Kronos who would battle the god Zeus and his
Titans. The
Roman's celebrated their god Saturn. Their festival was called Saturnalia
which began the middle of December and ended January 1st. With cries of
"Jo Saturnalia!" the celebration would include masquerades in
the streets, big festive meals, visiting friends, and the exchange of
good-luck gifts called Strenae (lucky fruits).
The
Romans decked their halls with garlands of laurel and green trees lit with
candles. Again the masters and slaves would exchange places.
"Jo
Saturnalia!" was a fun and festive time for the Romans, but the
Christians though it an abomination to honor the pagan god. The early
Christians wanted to keep the birthday of their Christ child a solemn and
religious holiday, not one of cheer and merriment as was the pagan
Saturnalia. But
as Christianity spread they were alarmed by the continuing celebration of
pagan customs and Saturnalia among their converts. At first the Church
forbid this kind of celebration. But it was to no avail. Eventually it was
decided that the celebration would be tamed and made into a celebration
fit for the Christian Son of God.
Some
legends claim that the Christian "Christmas" celebration was
invented to compete against the pagan celebrations of December. The 25th
was not only sacred to the Romans but also the Persians whose religion
Mithraism was one of Christianity's main rivals at that time. The Church
eventually was successful in taking the merriment, lights, and gifts from
the Saturanilia festival and bringing them to the celebration of
Christmas. The
exact day of the Christ child's birth has never been pinpointed.
Traditions say that it has been celebrated since the year 98 AD. In 137 AD
the Bishop of Rome ordered the birthday of the Christ Child celebrated as
a solemn feast. In 350 AD another Bishop of Rome, Julius I, choose
December 25th as the observance of Christmas.
Baby Jesus
When Rome was a great Empire ruled by Caesar Augustus and Israel was
governed by King Herod, in the village of Nazareth lived Joseph and Mary.
Joseph was a carpenter and Mary was a young virgin who would become his
wife. Mary told Joseph of a dream in which she was visited by an angel who
told her she had been chosen to bear the Son of God and his name was to be
Jesus. One day the
emperor sent notice that all persons were to register for a new tax. They
were instructed to return to the towns of their birth. Joseph and Mary
left Nazareth for Bethlehem. Mary who was with child, and close to the
birth, rode on a donkey while Joseph walked beside her. They traveled for
many days and only rested at night.
When
they reached Bethlehem it was night. They looked for a place to rest but
there were no empty rooms when they reached the inn. As they were being
turned away Joseph mentioned his wife was with child and close to birth.
The inn keeper took pity on them and told them of some caves in the nearby
hills that shepherds would stay with their cows and sheep.
So Joseph and
Mary went up into the hills and found the caves. In one cave was a stable
room. Joseph cleaned it and made beds of fresh hay. He found a feeding
trough which he cleaned and filled with hay to use as a crib. The next
night Mary gave birth to a son and they named him Jesus, as the angel had
said. When
the child was born a great star appeared over Bethlehem that could be seen
for miles around. In the fields nearby shepards were tending their flocks.
An angel appeared to them surrounded by bright light. The shepherds were
frightened and tried to run.
"Fear
Not," said the angel, "For I bring you tidings of great
joy. For unto you is born this day in Bethlehem - a Saviour who is Christ
the Lord." "And
this shall be a sign unto you. You shall find the babe wrapped in
swaddling clothes and lying in a manger." Suddenly the
sky was filled with angels, praising God and saying, "Glory to God in
the Highest, and on Earth peace, good will toward men."
After the
angels departed the shepards set out for Bethlehem. When they reached the
cave they found the stable and inside was the child wrapped in swaddling
clothes. As the star
shined over Bethlehem, in the east three kings would see it. They knew it
was a sign and they set off to follow the star. There was Caspar - the
young King of Tarsus, Melchior - a long bearded old man and leader of
Arabia, and Balthazar - the king from Ethiopia. They traveled on camels
for many days over the mountains, and through the deserts, and plains.
Always following the bright star.
When they
finally arrived in Bethlehem they found the child in the manger. The 3
kings bowed to their knees and offered gifts of gold, frankincense, and
myrrh. They would stay the night in the cave and the next day returned to
their lands to spread the news. Holly - The Christmas Green During the
holidays, many folks love to drape their doorways and deck their halls
with cheerful holly wreaths and garlands. These traditionalists may even
sing wistfully of "The Holly and the Ivy" when they go out
caroling. As with most
holiday symbols, this celebratory plant's original meaning has been buried
under a myriad of cultural layers. The pagan Druids are believed to have
been the first to take holly to heart. They viewed holly ?with its
cheerful propensity to remain green in winter ?as a sacred plant, designed
to keep the earth beautiful even as north winds howled and snow blanketed
the landscape. They wore sprigs of holly in their hair when they went into
the forest to watch their priests cut the sacred mistletoe. The Romans,
meanwhile, bequeathed the creation of holly to their god Saturn and used
it in great abundance during their raucous Saturnalia festival. Romans
gave one another holly wreaths and carried them about decorating images of
Saturn with it. Centuries
later, in December, while other Romans continued their pagan worship,
Christians celebrated the birth of Jesus. To avoid persecution, they
decked their homes with Saturnalia holly. As Christian numbers increased
and their customs prevailed, holly lost its pagan association and became a
symbol of Christmas. The plant has
come to stand for peace and joy, people often settle arguments under a
holly tree. Holly is believed to frighten off witches and protect the home
from thunder and lightning. In West England it is said sprigs of holly
around a young girl's bed on Christmas Eve are suppose to keep away
mischievous little goblins. In Germany, a piece that has been used in
church decorations is regarded as a charm against lightning. In England,
British farmers put sprigs of holly on their beehives. On the first
Christmas, they believed, the bees hummed in honor of the Christ Child.
The English also mention the "he holly and the she holly" as
being the determining factor in who will rule the household in the
following year, the "she holly" having smooth leaves and the
"he holly" having prickly ones. Other beliefs included putting a
sprig of holly on the bedpost to bring sweet dreams and making a tonic
from holly to cure a cough. All of these references give light to
"decking the halls with boughs of holly." Other Legends Holly is one
of the trees said to be the tree of Christ's cross. Legend tells us that
the trees of the forests refused the defilement of the cross, splintering
into tiny fragments at the touch of the ax. Only the holly behaved like an
ordinary tree, allowing itself to be cut and formed into a cross. It is as
a Passion symbol that holly is found in pictures of various saints. It's
presence indicates that the saint is either reflecting upon Christ's
Passion or foretelling it. In Germany,
holly is called Christdorn in memory of Christ's crown of thorns.
According to legend, the holly's branches were woven into a painful crown
and placed on Christ's head while the soldiers mocked him saying,
"Hail, King of the Jews." The holly's berries used to be white
but Christ's blood left them with a permanent crimson stain. Another legend
about this Christmas plant says that a little orphan boy was living with
the shepherds when the angels came to announce the birth of the newborn
king. Having no gift for the baby, the child wove a crown of holly
branches for its head. But when he lay it before Christ, he became ashamed
of it's poverty and began to cry. Miraculously, Jesus touched the crown
and it began to sparkle while the orphan's tears turned into beautiful
scarlet berries. The Christmas Stocking"The stockings were hung by the chimney with careIn hopes that Saint Nicholas soon would be there" There was a kindly nobleman whose wife had died of an illness leaving the nobleman and his three daughters in despair. After losing all his money in useless and bad inventions the family had to move into a peasant's cottage, where the daughters did their own cooking, sewing and cleaning. When it came time for the daughters to marry, the father became even more depressed as his daughters could not marry without dowries, money and property given to the new husband's family. One night after the daughters had washed out their clothing they hung their stockings over the fireplace to dry. That night Saint Nicholas, knowing the despair of the father, stopped by the nobleman's house. Looking in the window Saint Nicholas saw that the family had gone to bed. He also noticed the daughters stockings. Inspiration struck Saint Nicholas and he took three small bags of gold from his pouch and threw them one by one down the chimney and they landed in the stockings. The next morning when the daughters awoke they found their stockings contained enough gold for them to get married. The nobleman was able to see his three daughters marry and he lived a long and happy life. Children all over the world continue the tradition of hanging Christmas stockings. In some countries children have similar customs, in France the children place their shoes by the fireplace, a tradition dating back to when children wore wooden peasant shoes. In Holland the children fill their shoes with hay and a carrot for the horse of Sintirklass. In Hungary children shine their shoes before putting them near the door or a window sill. Italian children leave their shoes out the night before Epiphany, January 5, for La Befana the good witch. And in Puerto Rico children put greens and flowers in small boxes and place them under their beds for the camels of the Three Kings. In Quebec and Acadia, children traditionally put their shoes close to the fireplace so that the Infant Jesus, and later (Father Christmas), could put gifts there on Christmas Eve. This custom, which probably came to us from European countries where it was a common practice in the XIXth century, does not seem to have survived this period. In some Quebec families, children hung their stockings at the end of their bed rather than hanging them close to the fireplace or putting out their shoes. This custom ended during the 1930s when Christmas trees started to be set up in houses with gifts placed underneath. |
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St. Nicholas, also called Nicholas of Bari, Nicholas of Myra, and Santa Claus, flourished in the 4th century in Asia Minor near the modern Turkish city of Finike. One of the most popular minor saints commemorated in the Eastern and Western churches, his feast day is December 6th. He is now traditionally associated with the festival of Christmas. St. Nicholas was born in Patara
around A.D. 280 in Asia Minor and became bishop of Myra, now Demre, in
Turkey. (Myra is a three hour bus ride across the mountains from Patara.) The only definite historical evidence of his life is in the records of the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which was responsible for creating the Nicene Creed, a famous statement of doctrine. He was definitely in attendance, although it's not known what role he may have played in the meetings and deliberations. Nicholas probably suffered
in the persecution of Christians under the emperor Diocletian, which
lasted until about 311, at which time he would have been around
31-years-old. The new emperor, Constantine, tolerated and then encouraged
and finally established Christianity as the state religion. Nicholas died
about 343. Nicholas' existence is not attested by any historical document, so nothing certain is known of his life except that he was probably bishop of Myra in the 4th century. According to tradition, he was born in the ancient Lycian seaport city of Patara, and, when young, he traveled to Palestine and Egypt. He became bishop of Myra soon after returning to Lycia. He was imprisoned during the Roman emperor Diocletian's persecution of Christians but was released under the rule of Emperor Constantine the Great and attended the first Council of Nicaea in 325. After his death he was buried in his church at Myra, and by the 6th century his shrine there had become well known. In 1087 Italian sailors or merchants stole his alleged remains from Myra and took them to Bari, Italy; this removal greatly increased the saint's popularity in Europe and Bari became one of the most crowded of all pilgrimage centers. Nicholas' relics remain enshrined in the 11th-century basilica of San Nicola in Bari. Nicholas' reputation for generosity and kindness gave rise to legends of miracles he performed for the poor and unhappy. He was reputed to have given marriage dowries of gold to 3 girls whom poverty would otherwise have forced into lives of prostitution, and he restored to life 3 children who had been chopped up by a butcher and put in a brine tub. In the Middle Ages, devotion to Nicholas extended to all parts of Europe. He became the patron saint of Russia and Greece; of charitable fraternities and guilds; of children, sailors, unmarried girls, merchants, and pawnbrokers; and of such cities as Fribourg, Switzerland, and Moscow. Thousands of European churches were dedicated to him, one as early as the 6th century, built by the Roman emperor Justinian I, at Constantinople (now Istanbul). Nicholas' miracles were a favorite subject for medieval artists and liturgical plays, and his traditional feast day was the occasion for the ceremonies of the Boy Bishop, a widespread European custom in which a boy was elected bishop and reigned until Holy Innocents' Day (December 28). After the Reformation, Nicholas' cult disappeared in all the Protestant countries of Europe except Holland, where his legend persisted as Sinterklaas (a Dutch variant of the name Saint Nicholas). Dutch colonists took this tradition with them to New Amsterdam (now New York City) in the American colonies in the 17th century. Sinterklaas was adopted by the country's English-speaking majority under the name Santa Claus, and his legend of a kindly old man was united with old Nordic folktales of a magician who punished naughty children and rewarded good children with presents. The resulting image of Santa Claus in the U.S. crystallized in the 19th century, and he has ever since remained the patron of the gift-giving festival of Christmas. Under various guises Saint Nicholas was transformed into a similar benevolent, gift-giving figure in The Netherlands, Belgium, and other northern European countries. In the United Kingdom Santa Claus is known as Father Christmas. Celebrations in Netherlands In the Netherlands, St. Nicholas arrives in Amsterdam from Spain by ship three weeks before his feast day. He leads a parade to the city's main square, where he is greeted by the royal family and talks over the children's behavior during the year with the mayor. Zwarte Piet, or "Black Peter," accompanies him. This stern character carries a big red book, in which reports on the children are kept, and he is said to carry birch rods to punish the bad children and even to stuff the naughtiest into his bag to be carried back to Spain for punishment. St. Nicholas
Eve is greeted with festive family dinners, after which Sinterklaas
himself often makes a personal appearance. He may toss candies and toys
through the door, or come in with Zwarte Piet to give a mock lecture on
good behavior and to open his bag of sweets to the children. Later that
night, Nicholas takes to the skies on a white horse, on which he is said
to jump from roof to roof and down the chimney of each house. There he
finds children's shoes or baskets filled with hay for his horse. He
exchanges the hay for candy and toys and gold chocolate coins. Early on
the morning of the sixth, children awake to search eagerly for their
baskets (which Sinterklaas takes delight in hiding) and to enjoy the
treasures the good saint has left. For families
with older children and adults, different twists are added to the gift
giving and may include gag gifts or the drawing of gift ideas or names,
and most times are accompanied by poems with a "personal touch"
that poke fun at the recipient in a gentle way (or not, depending on the
families ;) . Wrapping the presents up in odd packages and planting a
trail of clues is also part of the general fun, and can sometimes be
pretty tricky to get to, depending on the squeamishness of the recipients. Early Dutch
settlers in America brought their beloved Sinterklaas with them, where he
eventually evolved into the cultural (rather than Christian) symbol we
know today. Reviving the festival of St. Nicholas on December 6 may be one
way to retain the fun and generosity of gift-giving without eclipsing the
birth of Jesus on Christmas Day.
On
the night before Christmas, all across the world, millions of children
will be tucked in their beds while "visions of sugarplums dance in their
heads." When they awake they will check their stockings to see if Santa
Claus has come. |
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Advent is the beginning of the Church Year for most churches in the Western tradition. It begins on the fourth Sunday before Christmas day, which is the Sunday nearest November 30, and ends on Christmas Eve (Dec 24). If Christmas Eve is a Sunday, it is counted as the fourth Sunday of Advent, with Christmas Eve proper beginning at sundown. Advent has
probably been observed since the fourth century. Originally, it was a time
when converts to Christianity readied themselves for baptism. The period beginning on the fourth Sunday
before Christmas, observed by many Christians as a season of prayer,
fasting, and penitence in preparation for Christmas. 降临节：从圣诞节前第四个星期日开始的一段时间，许多基督教徒在此期间祈祷，斋戒及忏悔以迎接圣诞节的到来 History
of Advent Traditions Although observed from as early as the 4th Century the rise in popularity of the advent is fairly recent. It is primarily of German origin. Advent is Latin for "coming towards" (The Latin, "ad", means "towards" whereas "ven/vent" is core of the Latin verb "veno", meaning "come".). Advent refers to the days approaching the coming of Christ to earth. More specifically, in the German tradition, it refers to the 24 days immediately preceding Christmas day, from December 1-24.. One of the most widely celebrated advent traditions is the advent calendar. The Advent Calendar finds its origins in the 19th Century from the protestant area of Germany. Protestant Christian families made a chalk line for every day in December until Christmas Eve. Before long, commercial entrepreneurs started replacing the ephemeral chalk lines with printed calendars,. The first known Advent Calendar is for the advent of 1851. Soon, other devices helped Germans and German immigrants to America celebrate the advent. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, the Adventclock or the Adventcandle - a candle for 24 days until Christmas - were found in many homes. The first printed speciem was made by Gerhard Lang (1881 - 1974) who was a Swabian parishioner from Maulbronn in Germany. When he was a child his mother made him an Advent Calendar with 24 "Wibbele" (little candies). Later Lang was a participator of the printing office Reichhold & Lang where he published miniature colored pictures which could be affixed on a cardboard at every day in December. This was the first printed Advent Calendar, although without windows to open, published in 1908. The celebration of advent and the associated advent calendar caught on like wildfire in the early decades of this century. However, despite the great success of Lang's Advent Calendar, he had to close his company in the 1930s due to World War II. This same war ended this German practice in many homes and certainly stopped the increase of this tradition. The first printed speciem after the war were printed by Richard Sellmer in 1946. Advent calendars continue to be printed to this day. In some homes, 24 candles are kept, one for each night from December 1 through Christmas eve. One candle is lit for a while on December 1, then a new candle is added each day for the 24 day period. However, for those homes using the candles, it was far more common to have four candles for the four weeks before Christmas. On candle was lit the first week, two the second week and so on. The candles were often place on a wreath upon the dining room table. The practice of advent is celebrated primarily in the German-speaking areas of Europe and especially in the protestant German areas of the United States. Origin
of the Advent Calendar
The origin of the Advent Calendar can be traced back
to the 19th. Century. The first styles came from the protestant area. So
religious families made a chalk line for every day in December until
Christmas Eve. The first known Advent Calendar which was made by
handwork is from the year 1851. Other early styles were the Adventclock or the
Adventcandle - a candle for each of the 24 days until Christmas, like
todays Advent wreath. So in religious families little pictures were hang
up on the wall - one for each day in December. An other tradition was to
paint chalk strokes on the door, one per day until Christmas Eve. In 1902 a Christian Bookshop in Hamburg published a
Christmas Clock which was very similar to that published 1922 by the St.
Johannis printing company. (Dominik Wunderlin, lic.phil. Swizzerland). The
Austrian (N? Landesmuseum is giving the year 1903 as the year of the first
printed Advent Calendar. In 1904 an Advent Calendar was inserted in the
newspaper "Neues Tagblatt Stuttgart" as a gift for their
readers. In contrast to the above Esther Gajek says that the
first printed speciem was made in 1908 by a Swabian parishioner, Gerhard
Lang (born 1881 in Maulbronn, Germany -died in 1974). When he was a child his mother made him an Advent
Calendar with 24 "Wibbele" (little candies) which were sticked
on a cardboard. Later Lang was a participator of the printing office
Reichhold & Lang. He produced little colored pictures which could be
affixed on a cardboard at every day in December. This was the first printed Advent Calendar, although
without windows to open, published in 1908. This Calendar was named
"Christmas-Calendar" or "Munich Christmas-Calendar".
At the beginning of the 20th Lang produced the first Advent Calendars with
little doors to open. At this time as well the Sankt Johannis Printing
Company started producing religious Advent Calendars, with Bible Verses
instead of pictures behind the doors. The Advent Calendar started a triumphal way around
the globe. But Lang had to close his company in the thirties. Until that
time he had produced about 30 different designs. The World War II terminated the success of this
German tradition. The cardboard was rationed and it was forbidden to
produce Calendars with pictures. The first printed speciem after the war
were printed by Richard Sellmer in 1946. We know that Advent Calendars filled with Chocolate
was already available in 1958. Celebrating
Advent
Advent is one of the few Christian festivals that can
be observed in the home as well as at church.
With its association with Christmas, Advent is a natural time to
involve children in activities at home that directly connect with worship
at church. In the home an
Advent wreath is often placed on the dining table and lighted at meals,
with Scripture readings preceding the lighting of the candles, especially
on Sunday. A new candle is lighted each Sunday during the four weeks, and
then the same candles are lighted each meal during the week. In this
context, it provides the opportunity for family devotion and prayer
together, and helps teach the Faith to children, especially if they are
involved in reading the daily Scriptures. It is common in many homes to try to mark the
beginning of Advent in other ways as well, for the same purpose of
instruction in the faith. Some families decorate the house for the
beginning of Advent, or bake special cookies or treats, or simply begin to
use table coverings for meals. An Advent Calendar is a way to keep
children involved in the entire season.
There are a wide variety of Advent calendars, but usually they are
simply a card or poster with windows that can be opened, one each day of
Advent, to reveal some symbol or picture associated with the Old Testament
story leading up to the birth of Jesus.
One unique and specialized Advent calendar that can be used either
in the home or the sanctuary is a Jesse Tree. All of these provide
opportunities to teach children the significance of this sacred time, and
to remind ourselves of it as well. In congregational worship, the Advent wreath is the
central teaching symbol of the season, the focal point for drawing the
congregation into the beginning of the story of redemption that will
unfold throughout the church year. For this reason, members of the
congregation are often involved in lighting the Advent candles and reading
the appropriate Scriptures each Sunday.
While in some churches it is customary for this to be done by
families, it can also be an especially good opportunity to demonstrate the
unity of the entire community of Faith by including those without
families, such as those never married, divorced, widowed, elderly who live
by themselves, or college students away from home. An
Advent Reflection
It is truly a humbling experience to read back
through the Old Testament and see how frail and imperfect all the
"heroes" actually are. Abraham, the coward who cannot believe
the promise. Jacob, the cheat who struggles with everybody. Joseph, the
immature and arrogant teen. Moses, the impatient murderer who cannot wait
for God. Gideon, the cowardly Baal-worshipper. Samson, the womanizing
drunk. David, the power abusing adulterer. Solomon, the unwise wise man.
Hezekiah, the reforming king who could not quite go far enough. And
finally, a very young Jewish girl from a small village in a remote corner
of a great empire. It never ceases to amaze me why God could not have
chosen "better" people to do His work in the world. Yet if God
can use them, and reveal Himself through them in such marvelous ways, it
means that He might be able to use me, inadequate, and unwise, and too
often lacking in faith that I am. And it means that I need to be careful
that I do not in my own self-righteousness put limits on what God can do
with the most unlikely of people in the most unlikely of circumstances. I
think that is part of the wonder of the Advent Season. The Spirit of Advent Advent is marked by a spirit of expectation, of anticipation, of preparation, of longing. There is a yearning for deliverance from the evils of the word, first expressed by Israelite slaves in Egypt as they cried out from their bitter oppression. It is the cry of those who have experienced the tyranny of injustice in a world under the curse of sin, and yet who have hope of deliverance from a God who has heard the cries of oppressed slaves and brought deliverance! It is that hope however faint at times, and that God however distant He sometimes seems, that brings to the world the anticipation of a King who will rule with truth and justice and righteousness over His people and in His creation. It is that hope that once anticipated, and now anticipates anew, the reign of an Anointed One, a Messiah, who will bring peace and justice and righteousness to the world. Part of that expectation also anticipates a judgment on sin and a calling of the world to accountability before God. We long for God to come and set the world right! Yet, as the prophet Amos warned, the expectation of a coming judgment at the "Day of the Lord" may not be the day of light that we might want, because the penetrating light of God’s judgment on sin will shine just as brightly on God’s people. Because of this important truth, especially in the Eastern Orthodox Churches, the Season of Advent has been a time of fasting and penitence for sins similar to the Season of Lent. However, a different emphasis for the season of Advent has gradually unfolded in much of the rest of the church. The season of Advent has come to be celebrated more in terms of expectation or anticipation. Yet, the anticipation of the Coming of the Messiah throughout the Old Testament and Judaism was not in connection with remembrance of sins. Rather, it was in the context of oppression and injustice, the longing for redemption, not from personal guilt and sin but from the systemic evil of the world expressed in evil empires and tyrants. It is in that sense that all creation groans for its redemption as we witness the evil that so dominates our world (Rom 8:18-25). Of course, there is the problem of longing for vindication from an evil world when we are contributors to that evil. This is the power of the images of Amos when he warns about longing for the "Day of the Lord" that will really be a day of darkness (Amos 5:18-20). Still, even with Amos’ warning the time of Advent is one of expectation and anticipation, a longing for God's actions to restore all things and vindicate the righteous. This is why during Advent we as Christians also anticipate the Second Coming as a twin theme of the season. So, while some church traditions focus on penitence during Advent, the spirit of that expectation from the Old Testament is better captured with a joyous sense of expectancy. Rather than a time of mourning and fasting, Advent is celebrated as a time of joy and happiness as we await the coming of the King. There will be time enough during the rest of the journey through the Church Year to remember our sins. It begins in Epiphany when we hear about the brotherhood of the Kingdom, and realize our failure to effect it. Then as we move toward and through Lent we realize that the coming of Jesus served more to lay bare our own sin than it did to vindicate our righteousness. There will be time to shed Peter's bitter tears as we realize that what started with such possibility and expectation has apparently ended in such failure. It is only as we experience that full cycle, beginning with unbridled joy in Advent that slowly fades into the realization of what we have done with and to the Christ, that the awful reality of Good Friday can have its full impact. And in that realization we can finally be ready to hear the Good News on Resurrection Sunday! That is the journey that the disciples took. And so there is value in taking the same journey beginning with the unbridled joy of Advent! So, we celebrate with gladness the great promise in the Advent, yet knowing that there is also a somber tone as the theme of threat is added to the theme of promise. This is reflected in some of the readings for Advent, in which there is a strong prophetic tone of accountability and judgment on sin. But this is also faithful to the role of the Coming King who comes to rule, save, and judge the world. Because of the dual themes of threat and promise, Advent is a time of preparation that is marked by prayer. While Lent is characterized by fasting and a spirit of penitence, Advent’s prayers are prayers of humble devotion and commitment, prayers of submission, prayers for deliverance, prayers from those walking in darkness who are awaiting a great light!
The spirit of Advent is expressed well in the parable of the bridesmaids
who are anxiously awaiting the coming of the Bridegroom. There is profound
joy at the Bridegroom’s expected coming. And yet a warning of the need
for preparation echoes through the parable. But even then, the prayer of
Advent is still: The
Tradition of Candles
Candles are central to the tradition of Advent. The
wreath on which candles are kept reminds us of God Himself, His eternity
and endless mercy, which has no beginning or end. And the Candles
symbolize the light of God coming into the world through the birth of His
son. The circular evergreen wreath is decorated with five candles, four
around the wreath and one in the center. The four outer candles represent
the period of waiting during the four Sundays of Advent, which themselves
symbolize the four centuries of waiting between the prophet Malachi and
the birth of Christ. The colors of the candles vary with different
traditions, but there are usually three purple or blue candles,
corresponding to the sanctuary colors of Advent, and one pink or rose
candle. One of the purple candles is lighted the first Sunday of Advent, a
Scripture is read, a short devotional or reading is given, and a prayer
offered. On subsequent Sundays, previous candles are relighted with an
additional one lighted. The pink candle is lighted on the third Sunday of
Advent. The light of the candles itself becomes an important
symbol of the season. The light reminds us that Jesus is the light of the
world that comes into the darkness of our lives to bring newness, life,
and hope. It also reminds us that we are called to be a light to the world
as we reflect the light of God's grace to others (Isa 42:6). The
progression in the lighting of the candles symbolizes the various aspects
of our waiting experience. As the candles are lighted over the four week
period, it also symbolizes the darkness of fear and hopelessness receding
and the shadows of sin falling away as more and more light is shed into
the world. The flame of each new candle reminds the worshippers that
something is happening, and that more is yet to come. Finally, the light
that has come into the world is plainly visible as the Christ candle is
lighted at Christmas, and worshippers rejoice over the fact that the
promise of long ago has been realized. The first candle is traditionally the candle of
Expectation or Hope (or in some traditions, Prophecy). This draws
attention to the anticipation of the coming of a Messiah that weaves its
way like a golden thread through Old Testament history. As God’s people
were abused by power hungry kings, led astray by self-centered prophets,
and lulled into apathy by half-hearted religious leaders, there arose a
longing among some for God to raise up a new king who could show them how
to be God’s people. They yearned for a return of God’s dynamic
presence in their midst.
And so, God revealed to some of the prophets that
indeed He would not leave His people without a true Shepherd. While they
expected a new earthly king, their expectations fell far short of God’s
revelation of Himself in Christ. And yet, the world is not yet fully
redeemed. So, we again with
expectation, with hope, await God’s new work in history, the second
Advent, in which He will again reveal Himself to the world. And we
understand in a profound sense that the best, the highest of our
expectations will fall far short of what our Lord’s Second Advent will
reveal! The remaining three candles of Advent may be
associated with different aspects of the Advent story in different
churches, or even in different years. Usually they are organized around
characters or themes as a way to unfold the story and direct attention to
the celebrations and worship in the season. So, the sequence for the
remaining three Sundays might be Bethlehem, Shepherds, Angels. Or Peace,
Joy, Love. Or John the Baptist, the Magi, Mary. Or the Annunciation,
Proclamation, Fulfillment. Whatever sequence is used, the Scripture
readings, prayers, lighting of the candles, the participation of
worshipers in the service, all are geared to telling the story of
redemption through God’s grace in the Incarnation. The third candle for the Third Sunday of Advent is
traditionally Pink or Rose, and symbolizes Joy at the Advent of the
Christ. Sometimes the colors of the sanctuary and vestments are also
changed to Rose for this Sunday. Whatever sequence is adopted for these
Sundays, the theme of Joy can still be the focus. For example, when using
the third Sunday to commemorate the visit of the Magi the focus can be on
the Joy of worshipping the new found King. Or the Shepherds as the symbol
for the third Sunday brings to mind the joy of the proclamation made to
them in the fields, and the adoration expressed as they knelt before the
Child at the manager. The center candle is white and is called the Christ
Candle. It is traditionally
lighted on Christmas Eve or Day. However, since many Protestant churches
do not have services on those days, many light it on the Sunday preceding
Christmas, with all five candles continuing to be lighted in services
through Epiphany (Jan 6). The central location of the Christ Candle
reminds us that the incarnation is the heart of the season, giving light
to the world. The
Significance of the Advent Wreath
The beginning of Advent is a time for the hanging of
the greens, decoration of the church with evergreen wreaths, boughs, or
trees that help to symbolize the new and everlasting life brought through
Jesus the Christ. Some churches have a special weekday service, or the
first Sunday evening of Advent, or even the first Sunday morning of
Advent, in which the church is decorated and the Advent wreath put in
place. This service is most often primarily of music, especially choir and
hand bells, and Scripture reading, along with an explanation of the
various symbols as they are placed in the sanctuary. The Advent wreath is an increasingly popular symbol
of the beginning of the Church year in many churches as well as homes.
Traditionally it contains four candles three purple and one rose. Candles
symbolize the light of God coming into the world through the birth of His
son. Purple dyes were one so rare and costly that they
were associated with royalty; the Roman Catholic Church has long used this
color around Christmas and Easter to honor Jesus. The three purple candles
in the Advent wreath symbolize hope, peace, and love. These candles are
lit on the first, second, and fourth Sundays of Advent. The rose candle,
which symbolizes joy, is usually lit on the third Sunday. Sometimes a
fifth candle is placed inside the Advent wreath. This candle is lit on
Christmas Day. It is white, the color associated with angels and the birth
of Jesus. The four outer candles also represent the period of
waiting during the four Sundays of Advent, which themselves symbolize the
four centuries of waiting between the prophet Malachi and the birth of
Christ. The circle of the wreath reminds us of God Himself,
His eternity and endless mercy, which has no beginning or end. The green
of the wreath speaks of the hope that we have in God, the hope of newness,
of renewal, of eternal life. The wreaths have their origins in the folk traditions
of northern Europe, where in the deep of winter people lit candles on
wheel-shaped bundles of evergreen. Both the evergreen and the circular
shape symbolized ongoing life. The candlelight gave comfort at this
darkest time of the year, as people looked forward to the longer days of
spring. Later, Eastern European Christians adopted this
practice. By the sixteenth century, they were making Advent wreaths much
as we know them today.
Because Advent wreaths are an informal celebration,
not all are the same. Instead of purple candles, some people use blue,
which recalls the color of the night sky before daylight returns. Others
use all white candles. The
Colors of Advent
Historically, the primary sanctuary color of Advent
is Purple, the color of royalty to welcome the Advent of the King. The
purple of Advent is also the color of suffering used during Lent and Holy
Week. This points to an important connection between Jesus’ birth and
death. The nativity, the Incarnation, cannot be separated from the
crucifixion, the Atonement. The purpose of Jesus’ coming into the world,
of the "Word made flesh" and dwelling among us, is to reveal God
and His grace to the world through Jesus’ life and teaching, but also
through his suffering, death, and resurrection. However, many churches now use blue to distinguish
the Season of Advent from Lent. Royal Blue is sometimes used as a symbol
of royalty. Some churches use Bright Blue to symbolize the night sky, the
anticipation of the impending announcement of the King’s coming, or to
symbolize the waters of Genesis 1, the beginning of a new creation. Red
and Green are more secular colors of Christmas, although they derive from
older European practices of using evergreens and holly to symbolize
ongoing life and hope that Christ’s birth brings into a cold world. The word Advent means "coming" or
"arrival." The focus of the entire season is the celebration of
the birth of Jesus the Christ in his First Advent, and the anticipation of
the return of Christ the King in his Second Advent. Thus, Advent is far
more than simply marking a 2,000 year old event in history. It is
celebrating a truth about God, the revelation of God in Christ whereby all
of creation might be reconciled to God. That is a process in which we now
participate, and the consummation of which we anticipate. Scripture
reading for Advent will reflect this emphasis on the Second Advent,
including themes of accountability for faithfulness at His coming,
judgment on sin, and the hope of eternal life. In this double focus on past and future, Advent also
symbolizes the spiritual journey of individuals and a congregation, as
they affirm that Christ has come, that He is present in the world today,
and that He will come again in power. That acknowledgment provides a basis
for Kingdom ethics, for holy living arising from a profound sense that we
live "between the times" and are called to be faithful stewards
of what is entrusted to us as God’s people. So, as the church celebrates
God’s inbreaking into history in the Incarnation, and anticipates a
future consummation to that history for which "all creation is
groaning awaiting its redemption," it also confesses its own
responsibility as a people commissioned to "love the Lord your God
with all your heart" and to "love your neighbor as
yourself."
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Thanks giving During the colonial regime Thanksgiving proved to be a significant event in promoting national unity. The first issue of the First Continental Congress as they met at Carpenters Hall was "Can we open the business with prayer?" Despite their diversity of religions, after fierce debate, inspired by delegate Sam Adams, their first official act was prayer - with remarkable results. From the first day, miraculous unity seemed to have held the far-flung colonies together. Before this Thanksgiving was more or less locally confined. Although not intended to be a perpetual annual observance, in October of 1777 a Day of Thanksgiving was proclaimed. Although it marked the first time that all 13 colonies were to join in such a celebration, it was equally a commemoration of the patriotic victory over the British at Saratoga. Nevertheless, over time, the notion of a Thanksgiving Day began to spread to other New England colonies.
In 1789, President George Washington issued a general proclamation which
named November 26 as a Day of National Thanksgiving. Many were opposed to
the idea. There was an air of discord among the Colonies and a feeling
that the hardships of a handful of Pilgrims hardly warranted a national
holiday. In that same year, the Protestant Episcopal Church announced that
the first Thursday in November would be a standard annual day for giving
thanks. Yet, for many years, the United States had no regular national
Thanksgiving Day (although some states independently observed a yearly
Thanksgiving holiday). By 1830, New York had an official State
Thanksgiving Day and other Northern States quickly followed suit. In 1855,
Virginia became the America's first Southern State to adopt the custom.
For the 75 years which followed, each President in office formally proclaimed that Thanksgiving Day should be celebrated on that last Thursday but, in 1939, President Franklin D. Roosevelt set it for one week earlier. The President's reason for this change was that he wanted to help businesses by lengthening the shopping period prior to Christmas. Public uproar against this decision caused the celebration of Thanksgiving to be moved back to its original date two years later. In 1941, it was finally ruled by Congress that the fourth Thursday of November would be deemed an observation of Thanksgiving Day and that it would be a legal federal holiday. Of the 300 million turkeys raised for consumption each year, one is chosen to be sent to the White House. There, the turkey is granted clemency from death and receives the President's pardon. This lucky bird is then sent to a farm where it lives out the rest of its days in peace, free from the threat of being the centerpiece of a Thanksgiving Dinner. The celebration of Thanksgiving in America was probably derived from the harvest-home ceremonies originally held in England. These were days reserved to thank God for plentiful crops and a bountiful harvest. Accordingly, this holiday still takes place late in the Fall Season, after crops have been gathered. Most recently, Thanksgiving Day in the United States is usually a family affair, complete with sumptuous dinners and happy reunions; however, it is also traditionally a time for serious religious contemplation, church services and prayer. The first observance of Thanksgiving in America was entirely religious in nature and involved no form of feasting. On December 4, 1619, a group of 38 English settlers arrived at Berkeley Plantation on the James River...a location now known as Charles City, Virginia. The charter of the group required that the day of arrival be observed as a Day of Thanksgiving to God. The
first Thanksgiving in the New England area was celebrated in 1621, a
little less than a year after the Plymouth colonists had settled in
America. Popularly known as the Pilgrims, they had set sail from Plymouth,
England on a ship called the Mayflower on September 6, 1620. They were
fortune hunters, bound for the resourceful 'New World'. The Mayflower was
a small ship crowded with men, women and children, besides the sailors on
board. Aboard were passengers comprising the 'separatists', who
called themselves the "Saints", and others, whom the After land was sighted in November following 66 days of a lethal voyage, a meeting was held and an agreement of truce was worked out between the Saints and Strangers. It was called the Mayflower Compact. The agreement guaranteed equality among the members of the two groups. They merged together to be recognized as the "Pilgrims." They elected John Carver as their first governor. Contrary to popular belief, however, Plymouth Rock was not the site of the original colony. When the Pilgrims landed there on December 11, 1620 in search of fresh provisions, they were greeted with hostility by the natives in the immediate vicinity and put back out to sea almost at once. A little further south, they came across Cape Cod, a much more favorable anchorage than Plymouth had proved to be and a native population which was more cordial in nature. Weary from their voyage and in no mood to hunt down the site mandated by their charter (which was considerably further down the coast and somewhere within the limits of the original grant of the Virginia Company of Plymouth), the Pilgrims decided to establish their colony within this friendly territory. That initial harsh Massachusetts winter killed approximately one-half of the original 102 colonists. In the following Spring of 1621, the Indians, led by two braves named Samoset (of the Wampanoag Tribe) and Squanto (of the Patuxtet Tribe), taught the survivors how to plant corn (called "maize" by the natives) and how to catch alewives (a variety of the herring family) in order that the fish might be used as a fertilizer to growing pumpkins, beans and other crops. Samsoset and Squanto also instructed the Pilgrims in the arts of hunting and angling. By that Summer, despite poor crops of peas, wheat and barley, a good corn yield was expected and the pumpkin crop was bountiful. In early Autumn, to recognize the help afforded the colonists by the Indians and to give thanks for having survivied, Governor William Bradford arranged for a harvest festival. Four men were sent "fowling" after ducks and geese. Turkey may or may not have been a part of the forthcoming meal since the term "turkey" was used by the Pilgrims to mean any type of wild fowl. The festival lasted three days. Massasoit, local sachem or chief of the Wampanoag, together with 90 Indians from the various Eastern Woodlands Tribes, participated in the ceremony. There can be little doubt that the majority of the feast was most likely furnished by the indigenous population. It is certain that they provided venison. The remainder of the meal, eaten outdoors around large tables, also probably included fish, berries, boiled pumpkin, watercress, leeks, lobster, dried fruit, clams, wild plums and cornbread. The celebration of this first New England Thanksgiving is believed to have taken place sometime between September 21 and November 9. The event, however, was a one-time celebration. It was not repeated the following year, nor was it intended to be an annual festival. It was not until 55 years later than another Thanksgiving Day was officially proclaimed, when the Governing Council of Charlestown, Massachusetts convened on June 20, 1676 to weigh how to best express thanks for the good fortune that had secured the establishment of their community. By unanimous vote, Edward Rawson (the Clerk of the Council) was instructed to announce June 29 as a Day of Thanksgiving. Yet again, this proved to be only a one-time event.
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Education in Britain and The US In Britain all children have to go to school between the ages of 5 and 16. In the US children must go to school from the age of 6 to between the ages of 14 and 16, depending on the state they live in. Subject In England and Wales the subjects taught in schools are laid down by the National Curriculum(课程), which was introduced in 1988 and sets out(制定) in detail the subjects that children should study and the levels of achievement they should reach by the ages of 7, 11, 14 and 16, when they are tested. The National Curriculum does not apply in Scotland, where each school decides what subjects it will teach. In the US the subjects taught are decided by national and local governments. Whereas British schools usually have prayers(祈祷) and religious(宗教的) instruction, American schools are not allowed to include prayers or to teach particular religious beliefs(信仰). Examinations At 16 students in England and Wales take GCSE examinations. These examinations are taken by students of all levels of ability in any of a range of subjects and may involve a final examination, an assessment(评价) of work done during the two year course, or both of these things. At 18 some students taken A-level examinations, usually in not more than 3 subjects. It is necessary to have A-levels in order to go to a university or polytechnic(综合技术大学). In Scotland students take the SCE examinations. A year later, they can take examinations called HIGHERS, after which they can either go straight to a university or spend a further year at school and take the Certificate(证书) of Sixth Year Studies. In Scotland the university system is different to that in England and Wales. Courses usually last four years rather than three and students study a larger number of subjects as part of their degree. In the US school examinations are not as important as they are in Britain. Students in High Schools do have exams at the end of their last two years, but these final exams are considered along with the work that the students have done during the school years. Social Events and Ceremonies(仪式) | |||||||
